NICUs provide essential services to manage conditions such as low birth weight, infections, and respiratory issues, yet prolonged stays can result in negative consequences, including developmental delays and increased family stress [1, 2]. 

In disadvantaged regions, accessing quality neonatal care presents additional challenges due to inadequate healthcare infrastructure, economic barriers, and limited health literacy among caregivers. Ethnic minority groups often experience significant healthcare disparities, worsened by language barriers and limited autonomy in healthcare decision-making. These obstacles hinder effective care delivery and highlight the urgent need for tailored interventions that address both immediate medical needs and broader socio-economic factors affecting maternal and infant health outcomes [3].

Healthcare-seeking behaviors and access to services pose significant challenges for ethnic minority groups in disadvantaged regions. Many healthcare providers lack local language skills, making it difficult to deliver evidence-based care. Additionally, many ethnic minority women have limited knowledge about pregnancy and childbirth, combined with restricted autonomy in healthcare decisions. These factors make it challenging to provide adequate services, particularly in remote or mountainous areas where extreme weather conditions, such as heavy rain, frequently make roads impassable [3].

A shortage of trained medical staff, insufficient equipment, and inadequate healthcare facilities create major barriers to effective health service delivery. These limitations prevent the implementation of evidence-based practices and contribute to healthcare inequities in remote regions. Additionally, the lack of essential resources, such as clean water and fully equipped healthcare rooms, further complicates efforts to provide high-quality care [3].

Financial constraints significantly impact healthcare access for disadvantaged populations. Many individuals from ethnic minority backgrounds struggle to afford medical services, particularly when referrals to higher levels of care result in substantial transportation and treatment costs. This economic burden further limits healthcare access, emphasizing the urgent need for affordable and accessible medical services in these communities [3].

Successful health interventions require active involvement from local authorities and community stakeholders. The level of support from local authorities varies widely, affecting the reach and effectiveness of health initiatives. Strengthening communication with local officials and consistently reporting program implementation efforts have been identified as key strategies for improving healthcare delivery to marginalized populations [3].

Poor infrastructure and challenging road conditions further restrict healthcare access in remote and mountainous areas. Adverse weather can make travel to health facilities nearly impossible, delaying necessary medical care for mothers and infants. Expanding transportation options and improving infrastructure would significantly enhance healthcare accessibility in these regions [3].

Limited health literacy among caregivers in disadvantaged communities hinders their ability to navigate healthcare systems effectively. Language barriers often compound these challenges, making it difficult for caregivers to understand and act on medical advice. Improving health literacy through education and clear communication strategies is essential for strengthening caregiver-provider relationships and ensuring better health outcomes for mothers and infants [4].

Socio-economic status plays a critical role in determining access to and quality of antenatal care services. Studies across 39 low- and middle-income countries show that wealthier women receive significantly greater access to antenatal care services than their lower-income counterparts. In lower-middle-income countries, a 45.6% gap exists in effective antenatal care service coverage between the highest- and lowest-income groups, with wealthier women 3.41 times more likely to receive care [5]. Education further widens these disparities. In Pakistan, women with formal education were 4.8 times more likely to access antenatal care services compared to those without any formal schooling [5].

Effective healthcare coverage depends not only on access but also on a facility’s readiness to provide quality care. A study in Bangladesh integrated Demographic and Health Survey data with Service Provision Assessment data, analyzing service readiness based on available resources such as essential medications and trained staff. This approach provided deeper insights into healthcare effectiveness beyond just accessibility, highlighting the structural quality of healthcare systems [5]. However, inconsistencies in defining and measuring effective coverage complicate comparisons across studies, despite multinational research offering more standardized country-level data [5].

Even when women access the same healthcare facilities, socio-demographic factors influence the quality of care they receive. Research shows that wealthier women often receive better care than their lower-income peers, even in the same facilities. This disparity results from wealthier women’s ability to afford additional healthcare costs, such as diagnostic tests and specialist consultations, which remain out of reach for many lower-income women [5]. Additionally, women with higher education levels and better-paying jobs can more effectively navigate healthcare systems, understand maternal and neonatal health needs, and advocate for comprehensive care [5].

or interdisciplinary care, improve health equity outcomes in disadvantaged populations. These interventions emphasize place-based care, where healthcare solutions are designed to reflect the unique socio-economic, cultural, and environmental characteristics of a specific community. When healthcare services align with local contexts and cultural needs, maternal and infant health outcomes improve significantly [6]. 

A systematic review highlights the impact of these targeted interventions in addressing health disparities among vulnerable populations, including minority ethnic groups and women facing severe socio-economic challenges such as homelessness or domestic violence [6]. By increasing accessibility and encouraging earlier engagement with healthcare services, community-centered care models help reduce maternal and infant health disparities and create more equitable healthcare systems [6].